b'However, minimizing alkaloid level can have a negative impact on yield performance and protein content, and can also strongly fluctuate with yearly environmental conditions, Deyerler explains. Its important to note that ornamental vari-eties contain dangerously high levels of alkaloids and should never be consumed by humans or animals.None of the participating companies in this article have separate breeding programs for food or feed uses. One of the biggest challenges to dedicating breeding programs to lupin is the food industry doesnt pay higher prices for quality. Both pay by weight, not by component, but both want to have as much protein as possible, notes Eckardt. The underpayment to farmers for lupin protein can be seen from looking at Germany, where farmers receive the same price for lupins (at 35 per cent protein) as for peas (20 per cent pro-tein) plus 10 euros per tonne. The protein level is difficult to influence in lupin, McNaughton adds. Shatter resistance is critical to achieve high-yielding lupin. The next most important factor is resistance to anthracnose (Colletotrichum lupini). Its because of lupins susceptibility to this disease the crop was largely ignored by breeders for the past two decades. Much recent progress has been made in breed-ing for resistance, and early maturation is also a goal for someLupin breeder Manuel Deyerler.breeders.In terms of specific lupin breeding activities:Saatzucht Steinach is working with Brigitte Ruge-Wehling and others at the German Federal Research CentreAll three lupin species are bred at PHR for livestock for Cultivated Plants (the Julius Khn-Institut, JKI) to improvefeed and as a green manure crop. Blue and yellow cultivars L. luteusyield and susceptibility to anthracnose.have satisfied yield potential, low alkaloid content and moderate Soya UK is working with breeders at National Academyresistance to anthracnose. In white lupin, the PHR breeders are of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine and has a breeding program forworking to increase oil content from 10 to 14 per cent. Barzyk white lupin, with sources of blue and yellow varieties from othersays gene pyramidation via convergent crossing program should breeders in Europe or Australia. McNaughton notes lupin is acombine high yield with earliness, anthracnose resistance, low quirky species with a lot of genetic diversity, so stabilising traitsalkaloid, and high oil content. Yield stabilization as a result of in a new variety is difficult. resistance to disease, along with flower abortion decrease, are Crience has taken over the lupin breeding programsthe biggest challenges in developing new cultivars of all three of INRAE and the company LUPSEM, with breeding focus onlupins.the selection of white winter lupin varieties with better yield potential in France, but also spring varieties with early mat- YIELD LIMITSuration. Cold tolerance is a major criterion for varietal evalua- Eckardt notes lupin yields are significantly higher on better soils tion, and Crience has trial sites halfway up some medium-sized(5-6 t/ha) and the genetic yield potential of Saatzucht Steinach mountains in France. Varieties developed today are determinate,cultivars is about 7-8 t/ha. The firms branching types gain about dwarf types. 1.4 per cent yield per year. Deutsche Saatveredelung only breeds white lupins.The terminal (determined) types are less productive, very The biggest challenge is the limited gene pool, says Deyerler,early ripening and suitable for border areas of lupin cultivation, and the level of climatic adaption of some candidates. ThisEckardt explains. The market for them is small, although they means that some candidates from gene banks can only be cul- have advantages such as late sowing, more even ripeness and tivated in some specific climate regions. However, white lupinpods above the leaf mass.can be grown across more conditions because it tolerates a broadMcNaughton reports yields of his white lupin can surpass spectrum of soil pH.5t/Ha, with 38 per cent protein and 11 per cent oil. EUROPEAN-SEED.COMIEUROPEAN SEED I 7'